Contrast agents are employed to effect image enhancement in a variety of fields of diagnostic imaging, the most important of these being X-ray, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound imaging and nuclear medicine. Other medical imaging modalities in development or in clinical use today include magnetic source imaging and applied potential tomography. The history of development of X-ray contrast agents is almost 100 years old.
The X-ray contrast agents in clinical use today include various water-soluble iodinated aromatic compounds comprising three or six iodine atoms per molecule. The compounds can be charged (in the form of a physiologically acceptable salt) or non-ionic. The most popular agents today are non-ionic substances because extensive studies have proven that non-ionic agents are much safer than ionics. This has to do with the osmotic loading of the patient. In addition to water-soluble iodinated agents, barium sulphate is still frequently used for X-ray examination of the gastrointestinal system. Several water-insoluble or particulate agents have been suggested as parenteral X-ray contrast agents, mainly for liver or lymphatic system imaging. Typical particulate X-ray contrast agents for parenteral administration include for example suspensions of solid iodinated particles, suspensions of liposomes containing water-soluble iodinated agents or emulsions of iodinated oils.
The current MRI contrast agents generally comprise paramagnetic substances or substances containing particles (hereinafter “magnetic particles”) exhibiting ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic or superparamagnetic behaviour. Paramagnetic MRI contrast agents can for example be transition metal chelates and lanthanide chelates like Mn EDTA and Gd DTPA. Today, several gadolinium based agents are in clinical use; including for example Gd DTPA (Magnevist7), Gd DTPA-BMA (Omniscan7), Gd DOTA (Dotarem7) and Gd HPDO3A (Prohance7). Several particulate paramagnetic agents have been suggested for liver MRI diagnosis; for example suspensions of liposomes containing paramagnetic chelates and suspensions of paramagnetic solid particles like for example gadolinium starch microspheres. Magnetic particles proposed for use as MR contrast agents are water-insoluble substances such as Fe3O4 or δ-Fe2O3 optionally provided with a coating or carrier matrix. Such substances are very active MR contrast agents and are administered in the form of a physiologically acceptable suspension.
Contrast agents for ultrasound contrast media generally comprise suspensions of free or encapsulated gas bubbles. The gas can be any acceptable gas for example air, nitrogen or a perfluorocarbon. Typical encapsulation materials are carbohydrate matrices (e.g. Echovist7 and Levovist7), proteins (e.g. Albunex7), lipid matrials like phospholipids (gas-containing liposomes) and synthetic polymers.
Markers for diagnostic nuclear medicine like scintigraphy generally comprise radioactive elements like for example technetium (99m) and indium (III), presented in the form of a chelate complex, whilst lymphoscintigraphy is carried out with radiolabelled technetium sulphur colloids and technetium oxide colloids.
The term “light imaging” used here includes a wide area of applications, all of which utilize an illumination source in the UV, visible or IR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In light imaging, the light, which is transmitted through, scattered by or reflected (or re-emitted in the case of fluorescence) from the body, is detected and an image is directly or indirectly generated. Light may interact with matter to change its direction of propagation without significantly altering its energy. This process is called elastic scattering. Elastic scattering of light by soft tissues is associated with microscopic variations in the tissue dielectric constant. The probability that light of a given wavelength (λ) will be scattered per unit length of travel in tissue is termed the (linear) scattering coefficient μs. The scattering coefficient of soft tissue in an optical window of approx. 600–1300 nm ranges from 101–103 cm−1 and decreases as 1/λ. In this range μs>>μa (the absorption coefficient) and although μs (and the total attenuation) is very large, forward scattering gives rise to substantial penetration of light into tissue. Ballistic light is light that has travelled through a region of tissue without being scattered. Quasi-ballistic light (“snake” light) is scattered light that has maintained approximately the same direction of travel. The effective penetration depth shows a slow increase or is essentially constant with increasing wavelengths above 630 nm (although a slight dip is observed at the water absorption peak at 975 nm).
The scattering coefficient shows only a gradual decrease with increasing wavelength.
Light that is scattered can either be randomly dispersed (isotropic) or can scatter in a particular direction with minimum dispersion (anisotropic) away from the site of scattering. For convenience and mathematical modelling purposes, scattering in tissue is assumed to occur at discrete, independent scattering centers (“particles”). In scattering from such “particles”, the scattering coefficient and the mean cosine of scatter (phase function) depend on the difference in refractive index between the particle and its surrounding medium and on the ratio of particle size to wavelength. Scattering of light by particles that are smaller than the wavelength of the incident light is called Rayleigh scattering. This scattering varies as 1/λ4 and the scattering is roughly isotropic. Scattering of light by particles comparable to or larger than the wavelength of light is referred to as Mie scattering. This scattering varies as 1/λ and the scattering is anisotropic (forward peaked). In the visible/near-IR where most measurements have been made, the observed scattering in tissue is consistent with Mie-like scattering by particles of micron scale: e.g. cells and major organelles.
Since the scattering coefficient is so large for light wavelengths in the optical window (600–1300 nm), the average distance travelled by a photon before a scattering event occurs is only 10–100 μm. This suggests that photons that penetrate any significant distance into tissue encounter multiple scattering events. The ballistic component of light that has travelled several centimeters through tissue is exceedingly small. Multiple scattering in tissue means that the true optical path length is much greater than the physical distance between the light input and output sites. The scattering acts, therefore, to diffuse light in tissue (diffuse-transmission and -reflection). The difficulty that multiple scattering presents to imaging is three-fold: (i) light that has been randomized due to multiple scattering has lost signal information and contributes noise to the image (scattering increases noise); (ii) scattering keeps light within tissue for a greater period of time, increasing the probability for absorption, so less light transmits through tissue for detection (scattering decreases signal); and (iii) the determination of physical properties of tissue (or contrast media) such as concentration that could be obtained from the Beer-Lambert law is complicated since the true optical path length due to scattering is difficult to determine (scattering complicates the quantification of light interactions in tissue). However, although light cannot penetrate more than a few tens of microns in tissue without being scattered, the large value of the mean cosine of scattering indicates that a significant fraction of photons in an incident beam may undergo a large number of scatters without being deviated far from the original optical axis, and as such can contribute in creating an image. As a result, it can be possible to perform imaging on tissue despite the predominance of scatter, if the noise component can be rejected and the quasi-ballistic component of the light can be detected.
The most interesting wavelengths for light imaging techniques are in the approximate range of 600–1300 nm. These wavelengths have the ability to penetrate relatively deeply into living tissue without absorption by natural substances and furthermore are harmless to the human body. However, for optical analysis of surface structures or diagnosis of diseases very close to the body surface or body cavity surfaces or lumens, UV light and visible light below 600 nm wavelength can also be used. Light can also be used in therapy; thus for example in Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) photons are absorbed and the energy is transformed into heat and/or photochemical reactions which can be used in cancer therapy.
The main methods of light imaging today include simple transillumination, various tomographic techniques, fluorescence imaging, and hybrid methods that involve irradiation with or detection of other forms of radiation or energy in conjunction with irradiation with or detection of light (such as photoacoustic or acousto-optical). These methods take advantage of either transmitted, scattered or emitted (fluorescence) photons or a combination of these effects. The present invention relates to contrast agents for any of these and further imaging methods based on any form of light.
There is today great interest in development of new equipment for imaging based on light. Interesting methods are especially the various types of tomographic techniques in development especially in Japan. As scientific references to the use of light in diagnostic medicine and PDT see for example Henderson, B. and Dougherty, T. in Photodynamic Therapy. 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There are several patent publications which relate to light imaging technology and to the use of various dyes in light imaging: a labeling fluorescent dye comprising hydroxy aluminium 2,3-pyrido cyanide in JP 4,320,456 (Hitachi Chem), therapeutic and diagnostic agent for tumors containing fluorescent labelled phthalocyanine pigment in JP 4288 022 (Hitachi Chem), detection of cancer tissue using visible native luminescence in U.S. Pat. No. 4,930,516 (Alfano R. et al.), method and apparatus for detection of cancer tissue using native fluorescence in U.S. Pat. No. 5,131,398 (Alfano, R. et al.), improvements in diagnosis by means of fluorescenct light emmision from tissue in WO 90/10219 (Andersson-Engels, S. et al.), fluorescent porphyrin and fluorescent phthalocyanine-polyethylene glycol, polyol, and saccharide derivatives as fluorescent probes in WO91/18006 (Diatron Corp), method of imaging a random medium in U.S. Pat. No. 5,137,355 (State Univ. of New York), tetrapyrrole therapeutic agents in U.S. Pat. No. 5,066,274 (Nippon Petrochemicals), tetrapyrrole polyaminomonocarboxylic acid in therapeutic agents in U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,177 (Nippon Petrochemicals), tetrapyrrole aminocarboxylic acids in U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,811 (Nippon Petrochemicals), porphyrins and cancer treatment in U.S. Pat. No. 5,162,519 (Efamol Holdings), dihydroporphyrins and method of treating tumors susceptible to necrosis in U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,221 (Efamol), parenterally administered zinc phthalocyanide compounds in form of liposome dispersion containing synthetic phospholipids in EP 451 103 (CIBA Geigy), apparatus and method for detecting tumors in U.S. Pat. No. 4,515,165 (Energy Conversion Devices), time and frequency domain spectroscopy determining hypoxia in WO92/13598 (Nim Inc), phthalocyanatopolyethylene glycol and phthalocyanato saccharides as fluorescent digoxin reagent in WO 91/18007 (Diatron), fluorometer in U.S. Pat. No. 4,877,965 (Diatron), fiberoptic fluorescence spectrometer in WO 90/00035 (Yale Univ.), tissue oxygen measuring system in EP 502,270 (Hamamatsu Photonics), method for determining bilirubin concentration from skin reflectance in U.S. Pat. No. 4,029,084 (Purdue Research Foundation), bacteriochlorophyll-a derivative useful in photodynamic therapy in U.S. Pat. No. 5,173,504 (Health Research Inc), purified hematoporphyrin dimers and trimers useful in photodynamic therapy in U.S. Pat. No. 5,190,966 (Health Research Inc), drugs comprising porphyrins in U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,621 (Health Research Inc), hemoporphyrin derivatives and process of preparing in U.S. Pat. No. 4,866,168 (Health Research Inc), method to destroy or impair target cells in U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,863 (Health Research Inc), method to diagnose the presence or absence of tumor tissue in U.S. Pat. No. 5,015,463 (Health Research Inc), photodynamic therapeutic technique in U.S. Pat. No. 4,957,481 (U.S. Bioscience), apparatus for examining living tissue in U.S. Pat. No. 2,437,916 (Philip Morris and Company), transillumination method apparatus for the diagnosis of breast tumors and other breast lesions by normalization of an electronic image of the breast in U.S. Pat. No. 5,079,698 (Advanced Light Imaging Technologies), tricarbocyanine infrared absorbing dyes in U.S. Pat. No. 2,895,955 (Eastman Kodak), optical imaging system for neurosurgery in CA 2,048,697 (Univ. Techn. Int.), new porphyrin derivatives and their metallic complexes as photosensitizer for PDT in diagnosis and/or treatment of cancer in JP 323,597 (Hogyo,T), light receiving system of heterodyne detection and image forming device for light transmission image in EP 445,293 (Research Development Corp. of Japan), light receiving system of heterodyne detection and image forming device for light transmission image using light receiving system in WO 91/05239 (Research Development Corp. of Japan), storage-stable porphyrin compositions and a method for their manufacture in U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,234 (Healux), method for optically measuring chemical analytes in WO 92/19957 (Univ. of Maryland at Baltimore), wavelength-specific cytotoxic agents in U.S. Pat. No. 4,883,790 (Univ. of British Columbia), hydro-monobenzo-porphyrin wavelength-specific cytotoxic agents in U.S. Pat. No. 4,920,143 (Univ. of British Columbia), apparatus and method for quantitative examination and high-resolution imaging of human tissue in EP 447,708 (Haidien Longxing Med Co), optical imaging system for neurosurgery in U.S. Pat. No. 7,565,454 (University Technologies Int. Inc.),—characterization of specific drug receptors with fluorescent ligands in WO 93/03382 (Pharmaceutical Discovery Corp), 4,7-dichlorofluorescein dyes as molecular probes in U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,934 (Applied Biosystems), high resolution breast imaging device utilizing non-ionizing radiation of narrow spectral bandwith in U.S. Pat. No. 4,649,275 (Nelson, R. et al.), meso-tetraphenyl-porphyrin-Komplexverbindungen, Verfaren zu ihrer Herstellung und Diese Enthaltends Pharmazeutische Mittel in EP 336,879 (Schering), 13,17-propionsaure und propionsaurederivat Substituerte Porphyrin-Komplexverbindungen, Verfahren zu ihrer Herstellung und diese Enthaltende Pharmazeutische Mittel in EP 355,041 (Schering), photosensitizing agents in U.S. Pat. No. 5,093,349 (Health Research), pyropheophorbides and their use in photodynamic therapy in U.S. Pat. No. 5,198,460 (Health Research), optical histochemical analysis, in vivo detection and real-time guidance for ablation of abnormal tissues using Raman spectroscopic detection system in WO 93/03672 (Redd, D.), tetrabenztriazaporphyrin reagents and kits containing the same in U.S. Pat. No. 5,135,717 (British Technology Group), system and method for localization of functional activity in the human brain in U.S. Pat. No. 5,198,977 (Salb, J.). photodynamic activity of sapphyrins in U.S. Pat. No. 5,120,411 (Board of Regents, University of Texas), process for preparation of expanded porphyrins in U.S. Pat. No. 5,152,509 (Board of Regents, University of Texas), expanded porphyrins (Board of Regents, University of Texas), infrared radiation imaging system and method in WO 88/01485 (Singer Imaging), imaging using scattered and diffused radiation in WO 91/07655 (Singer Imaging), diagnostic apparatus for intrinsic fluorescence of malignant tumor in U.S. Pat. No. 4,957,114, indacene compounds and methods for using the same in U.S. Pat. No. 5,189,029 (Bo-Dekk Ventures), method of using 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (carboxy phenyl) porphine for detecting cancers of the lung in U.S. Pat. No. 5,162,231 (Cole, D. A. et al.), Verfahren zur Abbildung eines Gewebebereiches in DE 4327 798 (Siemens), chlorophyll and bacteriochlorophyll derivatives, their preparation and pharmaceutical compositions comprising them in EPO 584 552 (Yeda Research and Development Company), wavelength-specific photosensitive porphacyanine and expanded porphyrin-like compounds and methods for preparation and use thereof in WO 94/10172 (Qudra Logic Technologies), method and apparatus for improving the signal to noise ratio of an image formed of an object hidden in or behind a semiopaque random media in U.S. Pat. No. 5,140,463 (Yoo, K. M. et al.), benzoporphyrin derivatives for photodynamic therapy in U.S. Pat. No. 5,214,036 (University of British Columbia), fluorescence diagnostics of cancer using delta-amino levulinic acid in WO 93/13403 (Svanberg et al.), Verfahren zum Diagnostizieren von mit fluoreszierenden Substansen angereicherten, inbesondere tumorosen Gewebebereichen in DE 4136 769 (Humboldt Universitat), terpyridine derivatives in WO 90/00550 (Wallac).
All the light imaging dyes or contrast agents described in the state-of-the-art have different properties, but all those agents have an effect on the incident light, leading to either absorption and/or fluorescence. However none of these contrast agents is used as a particulate contrast agent.